Exploring Motivations and Language Learning Strategies for Learning Japanese: Voices of Undergraduate Students in Kazakhstan Madiar Berikuly Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Multilingual Education Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education May, 2025 Word count: 24,393 ii Author Agreement By signing and submitting this license, I Madiar Berikuly grant to Nazarbayev University (NU) the non-exclusive right to reproduce, convert (as defined below), and/or distribute my submission (including the abstract) worldwide in print and electronic format and in any medium, including but not limited to audio or video. I agree that NU may, without changing the content, convert the submission to any medium or format for the purpose of preservation. I also agree that NU may keep more than one copy of this submission for purposes of security, back-up and preservation. I confirm that the submission is my original work, and that I have the right to grant the rights contained in this license. I also confirm that my submission does not, to the best of my knowledge, infringe upon anyone’s copyright. If the submission contains material for which I do not hold copyright, I confirm that I have obtained the unrestricted permission of the copyright owner to grant NU the rights required by this license, and that such third-party owned material is clearly identified and acknowledged within the text or content of the submission. IF THE SUBMISSION IS BASED UPON WORK THAT HAS BEEN SPONSORED OR SUPPORTED BY AN AGENCY OR ORGANIZATION OTHER THAN NU, I CONFIRM THAT |I HAVE FULFILLED ANY RIGHT OF REVIEW OR OTHER OBLIGATIONS REQUIRED BY SUCH CONTRACT OR AGREEMENT. NU will clearly identify my name(s) as the author(s) or owner(s) of the submission, and will not make any alteration, other than as allowed by this license, to your submission. I hereby accept the terms of the above Author Agreement. Author’s signature: Date: 30.05.25 iii Declaration I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my knowledge it contains no materials previously published or written by another person, or substantial proportions of material which have been submitted for the award of any other course or degree at NU or any other educational institution, except where due acknowledgment is made in the thesis. This thesis is the result of my own independent work, except where otherwise stated, and the views expressed here are my own. Author’s signature: Date: 30.05.2025 iv Ethical Approval v CITI Training Certificate vi Acknowledgments First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to everyone who contributed to the founding and ongoing success of Nazarbayev University, and made the GSE happen. This place has been a wellspring of intellectual stimulation and support, making my academic journey both possible and meaningful. My deepest thanks go to my supervisor, Dr. Anas Hajar, for his unwavering support, insightful guidance, and for introducing me to the world of academic research and teaching. His mentorship and teaching methods have left a lasting impression that I will carry forward throughout my career. I am also profoundly grateful to the faculty and professors of GSE — Dr. Bridget Goodman, Dr. Philip Montgomery, Dr. Syed Abdul Mannan, and Dr. Jason Sparks — for their support, encouragement, and for creating an enriching learning experience. It has been a true honour to study under such bright, open-minded, and kind-hearted individuals. You will always be remembered with great respect and admiration. I would like to thank the participants of this study for generously sharing their experiences and insights, which were central to the findings of this research. I also extend my appreciation to all the students I have had the privilege to teach — thank you for continuously inspiring my passion for education. To my sensei, thank you for awakening in me a deep appreciation for the beautiful Japanese language and culture. To my friends — thank you for always having my back. And to Lena — thank you for being the joy of my life. vii Abstract Exploring Motivations and Language Learning Strategies for Learning Japanese: Voices of Undergraduate Students in Kazakhstan As interest grows in the study of languages beyond English, research has increasingly turned toward the motivations behind learning languages other than English (LOTE). Despite Central Asia’s rich multilingual environment, scholarly attention in the region has largely focused on English, leaving the study of motivations for learning LOTEs like Japanese underrepresented. To address this gap, the current qualitative research investigates the experiences of undergraduate students in Kazakhstan who are studying Japanese as a foreign language. The study specifically examines what drives these learners to study Japanese, the challenges they encounter throughout their learning process, and the language learning strategies (LLSs) they adopt to support their progress. The research is framed by Dörnyei’s (2009) L2 Motivational Self System and Oxford’s (1990) categorization of LLSs and draws on two qualitative methods: narrative writing and semi-structured interviews. Data were analyzed through thematic analysis following the procedures outlined by Braun and Clarke (2013). The analysis revealed that students were motivated by a combination of cultural interest, career-related goals, and personal affinity for the language. Many participants reported being drawn to Japanese due to its pop culture, aesthetics, and perceived professional value. At the same time, they described facing substantial obstacles, including difficulty with writing systems, limited practice opportunities, and inconsistencies in university-level instruction. Nevertheless, students demonstrated agency in navigating these challenges by employing various learning strategies—especially cognitive and social ones— including self-directed kanji practice, interaction with native speakers, and participation in language communities. Based on these findings, the study puts forward pedagogical viii suggestions for improving Japanese language education in Kazakhstan and highlights the importance of exploring learners’ perspectives in underexamined multilingual contexts. Keywords: motivation, language learning strategies, SLA, L2 motivational self system, Japanese language ix Аңдатпа Жапон тілін үйренудің мотивациясы мен стратегиясын зерттеу: Қазақстандағы бакалавриат студенттерінің пікірлері Ағылшын тілінен тыс тілдерді үйренуге деген қызығушылық артқан сайын, зерттеулер ағылшын тілінен басқа тілдерді (LOTE) үйренуге деген мотивацияға көбірек бет бұруда. Орталық Азияның көп тілді бай ортасына қарамастан, аймақтағы ғалымдардың назары негізінен ағылшын тіліне аударылады, нәтижесінде студенттердің жапон сияқты тілдерді үйренуге деген ынтасын зерттеу шектеулі болып қалады. Бұл алшақтықты жою үшін осы сапалы зерттеу Жапон тілін шет тілі ретінде оқитын Қазақстандағы бакалавриат студенттерінің тәжірибесін зерттеуге бағытталған. Зерттеудің мақсаты-сұрақтарға жауап беру: Қазақстандағы Университет студенттерін жапон тілін үйренуге не итермелейді, олар оқу процесінде қандай қиындықтарға тап болады, сондай-ақ өз прогресінің тиімділігін арттыру үшін қандай тіл үйрену стратегияларын қолданады. Зерттеу Дёрньей (2009) ұсынған L2 мотивациялық жүйесіне және Оксфордтың (1990) әзірлеген тіл үйрену стратегияларының классификациясына негізделген және екі сапалы әдіске сүйенеді: баяндау және жартылай құрылымды сұхбат. Деректер Браун мен Кларктың (2006) сипаттаған процедураларына сәйкес тақырыптық талдау арқылы талданды. Нәтижелер студенттердің мәдени қызығушылықтардың, мансаптық ұмтылыстардың және жапон тіліне деген жеке сүйіспеншіліктің үйлесуіне түрткі болғанын көрсетті. Көптеген қатысушылар жапон поп-мәдениеті, эстетикасы және оның кәсіби құндылығын түсінуі арқылы жапон тіліне тартылатынын хабарлады. Сонымен бірге олар жапондық жазудағы қиындықтарды, тәжірибенің шектеулі мүмкіндіктерін және университеттің оқу жүйесіндегі кемшіліктерді қоса алғанда, айтарлықтай қиындықтарға тап болғанын айтты. Дегенмен, студенттер тіл үйренудің әртүрлі стратегияларын қолдана отырып, x осы кедергілерді жеңуге бел буды. Бұл негізінен когнитивті және әлеуметтік стратегиялар болды, мысалы, канжи иероглифтерін өз бетінше пысықтау, ана тілінде сөйлейтіндермен өзара әрекеттесу және тілдік қауымдастықтарға қатысу. Осы тұжырымдарға сүйене отырып, зерттеуде Қазақстанда жапон тілін оқытудың педагогикалық тәсілдерін жақсарту бойынша ұсыныстар айтылады және көп тілді контексте оқушылардың көзқарастарын ескерудің маңыздылығы атап өтіледі. Түйін сөздер: мотивация, тіл үйрену стратегиялары, SLA, L2 мотивация жүйесі, жапон тілі xi Аннотация Изучение мотивации и стратегий изучения японского языка: мнения студентов бакалавриата в Казахстане По мере роста интереса к изучению языков, выходящих за рамки английского, исследования все чаще обращаются к мотивациям изучения языков, отличных от английского (LOTE). Несмотря на богатую многоязычную среду Центральной Азии, внимание учёных в регионе в основном сосредоточено на английском языке, в результате чего исследования мотивации студентов к изучению таких языков, как японский, остаются ограниченными. Чтобы сократить этот разрыв, настоящее качественное исследование направлено на изучение опыта студентов бакалавриата в Казахстане, изучающих японский язык как иностранный. Цель исследования — ответить на вопросы: что побуждает студентов университетов в Казахстане изучать японский язык, с какими трудностями они сталкиваются в процессе обучения, а также какие стратегии изучения языка они применяют для повышения эффективности своего прогресса. Исследование основано на мотивационной системе L2, предложенной Дёрньеем, и классификации стратегий изучения языка, разработанной Оксфорд (1990), и опирается на два качественных метода: нарративное письмо и полуструктурированные интервью. Данные были проанализированы с использованием тематического анализа в соответствии с процедурами, описанными Брауном и Кларком. Результаты показали, что студенты были мотивированы сочетанием культурных интересов, карьерных устремлений и личной привязанности к японскому языку. Многие участники сообщили, что их привлекает японский язык благодаря японской поп-культуре, эстетике и осознанию его профессиональной ценности. В то же время они рассказали, что столкнулись с существенными трудностями, включая сложности с японской письменностью, ограниченные возможности для практики и xii недостатки в системе обучения в университете. Тем не менее студенты проявили решимость в преодолении этих препятствий, используя разнообразные стратегии изучения языка. В основном это были когнитивные и социальные стратегии, такие как самостоятельная отработка иероглифов кандзи, взаимодействие с носителями языка и участие в языковых сообществах. Основываясь на этих выводах, в исследовании выдвигаются предложения по улучшению педагогических подходов к обучению японскому языку в Казахстане и подчеркивается важность учета взглядов учащихся в многоязычных контекстах. Ключевые слова: мотивация, стратегии изучения языка, SLA, система мотивации L2, японский язык xiii Table of Contents Author Agreement ..................................................................................................................... ii Declaration ............................................................................................................................... iii Ethical Approval ....................................................................................................................... iv CITI Training Certificate ........................................................................................................... v Acknowledgments..................................................................................................................... vi Abstract .................................................................................................................................... vii Аңдатпа .................................................................................................................................... ix Аннотация ................................................................................................................................ xi Chapter 1: Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Background of the Study ................................................................................................. 3 1.2 Problem Statement ........................................................................................................... 4 1.3 Purpose of the Study and Research Questions ................................................................. 6 1.4 Significance of the Study ................................................................................................. 6 1.5 Organization of the Thesis ............................................................................................... 7 1.6 Summary .......................................................................................................................... 8 Chapter 2: Literature Review ..................................................................................................... 9 2.1 Defining the term Motivation, its Emergence and Importance in SLA ........................... 9 2.1.1 Early Developments in Motivation Research ......................................................... 10 2.1.2 The Role of Motivation in SLA Research ................................................................ 11 2.2 Motivation Research in the Context of Global English ................................................. 12 2.2.1 The Influence of Global English on Motivation to Learn LOTEs ........................... 13 2.2.2 The Multilingual Turn in SLA and Growing Interest in Learning LOTEs ............. 14 2.3 Language Learning Strategies Research: Insights and Criticism .................................. 16 2.3.1 Defining Language Learning Strategies ................................................................. 17 2.3.2 Oxford’s Taxonomy of LLSs.................................................................................... 18 2.4 Empirical Studies on Learning Japanese as an Additional Language ........................... 19 2.4.1 Research on Motivational Factors for Learning Japanese .................................... 20 2.4.2 Challenges of Learning Japanese in Different Contexts ........................................ 21 2.5 Theoretical framework ................................................................................................... 23 2.6 Summary ........................................................................................................................ 25 Chapter 3: Methodology .......................................................................................................... 26 3.1 Research Design............................................................................................................. 26 3.2 Research Site and Sample .............................................................................................. 28 3.3 Data Collection Instruments .......................................................................................... 31 xiv 3.4 Procedures of Data Collection ....................................................................................... 33 3.5 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................. 35 3.6 Ethical Considerations ................................................................................................... 39 3.7 Summary ........................................................................................................................ 40 Chapter 4: Findings .................................................................................................................. 41 4.1 Biographical Vignettes of the Research Participants ..................................................... 41 4.2. Motivations to Study Japanese...................................................................................... 46 4.2.1 Motivations Rooted in Entertainment, Culture, History, and Aesthetics ................ 46 4.2.2 Educational and Professional Motivations ............................................................. 48 4.2.3 Motivations Shaped by Social Factors ................................................................... 51 4.3 Challenges in Learning and Advancing Japanese Proficiency ...................................... 52 4.3.1 Challenges Related to the University Program ...................................................... 52 4.3.2 Challenges Related to Linguistic Features of Japanese ......................................... 55 4.3.3 Challenges Related to Demotivation ...................................................................... 60 4.4 Language Learning Strategies for Studying Japanese ................................................... 61 4.4.1 Memory Strategies .................................................................................................. 62 4.4.2 Cognitive Strategies ................................................................................................ 64 4.4.3 Metacognitive Strategies ......................................................................................... 66 4.4.4 Social Strategies...................................................................................................... 67 4.4.5 The Role of AI and English in Learning Japanese ................................................. 68 4.5 Summary ........................................................................................................................ 70 Chapter 5: Discussion .............................................................................................................. 72 5.1 Revisiting the Theoretical Framework........................................................................... 72 5.2 What Motivated the Participants to Learn Japanese as an Additional Language? ........ 73 5.2.1 Ideal L2 self............................................................................................................. 74 5.2.2 International Posture .............................................................................................. 75 5.2.3 Near-Peer Role Models........................................................................................... 76 5.2.4 Ought-to L2 self ...................................................................................................... 77 5.3 What Challenges Did the Participants Encounter While Learning Japanese? ............... 79 5.3.1 Institutional Challenges in University-Based Language Learning ........................ 79 5.3.2 Linguistic Challenges in Acquiring Japanese as a Foreign Language .................. 80 5.4 How Did the Participants Cope with Their Challenges While Learning Japanese? ...... 82 5.4.1 Direct Strategies ..................................................................................................... 82 5.4.2 Indirect strategies ................................................................................................... 83 5.4.3 The Role of AI as a Facilitator in Language Learning ........................................... 84 xv 5.5 Summary ........................................................................................................................ 85 Chapter 6: Conclusion.............................................................................................................. 86 6.1 Summary of Major Findings .......................................................................................... 86 6.2 Strengths and Limitations of This Study ....................................................................... 88 6.3 Implications of This Study ............................................................................................. 90 6.3.1 Pedagogical Implications ....................................................................................... 90 6.3.2 Policy-Level Implications ....................................................................................... 92 6.3.3 Suggestions for Future Research ............................................................................ 93 References ................................................................................................................................ 94 Appendix A: AI Declaration Form ........................................................................................ 106 Appendix B: Prompts for the Narrative Essay ....................................................................... 107 Appendix C: Semi-structured Interview Questions ............................................................... 108 Appendix D: E-mail to University ......................................................................................... 110 Appendix E: Informed Consent Form.................................................................................... 111 xvi List of Tables Table 1. Demographic Data of the Participants ....................................................................... 30 Table 2. Narrative Essay Questions ......................................................................................... 32 Table 3. Code Samples ............................................................................................................ 37 Table 4. The Participants’ Implementation of Japanese Language Learning Strategies ......... 62 xvii List of Figures Figure 1. Thematic Map Based on the Participants’ Data ....................................................... 38 1 Chapter 1: Introduction Understanding what drives individuals to learn an additional language or languages has long been a central concern for language educators and researchers (Dörnyei & Mentzelopoulos, 2024). This drive, commonly defined as motivation in academic research, plays a crucial role in second language acquisition (SLA) because it directly influences the extent to which students engage with and persist in the language learning process. As Corder (1981) famously noted, “Given motivation, it is inevitable that a human being will learn a second language if they are exposed to the language data” (p. 105). This statement highlights the importance of motivation in determining the effort, persistence, and overall success in acquiring a new language. Historically, research on language learning motivation has predominantly centered on English. This focus is largely attributed to the global status of English as a lingua franca, its significance in international business, science, and technology, and its widespread integration into educational systems worldwide (Ushioda & Dörnyei, 2017). Gardner and Lambert’s (1959) influential work laid the foundation for the field of motivation in SLA by demonstrating the critical role of motivation in learning English and thus, a significant body of research has focused primarily on English learning motivation (Boo et. al., 2015). However, as studies on multilingualism have increased especially with the multilingual turn in SLA (May, 2014), language researchers have increasingly recognized the importance of SLA motivation in languages other than English (LOTEs) (Ushioda & Dörnyei, 2017). Another significant turning point in L2 motivation research is the recognition that most studies have focused on learners’ motivations without considering their enriching multilingual backgrounds (Henry, 2017). In this regard, language researchers increasingly advocate conducting further studies that examine language 2 learners’ motivations holistically, paying attention to the dynamic interactions within their entire language repertoire. In Kazakhstan, the context of the present study, no empirical studies have explored individuals’ motivations for LOTEs, with the exception of one study focusing on university students’ motivations for learning Korean as an additional language (Hajar & Manan, 2024). As regards to Japanese, only a few empirical studies have explored individuals’ experiences of learning Japanese as a LOTEs across different settings (e.g., Jitpaiboon et al., 2024; Nakamura, 2015, 2017, 2023; Northwood & Thomson, 2012). However, no studies have been conducted on students studying Japanese as a target language in Central Asia despite its increasing interest in the region (JASSO, 2023). Along with motivation, another crucial determinant of success in SLA is language learning strategies (LLSs), the tools that language learners use to deal with different challenges they encounter while learning the target language. LLSs are often defined as language learners’ actions chosen consciously for active, self-regulated improvement in language learning (Griffiths, 2013; O’Malley & Chamot, 1990). As individuals strive to enhance their educational and professional opportunities, mastering a second language through effective LLSs remains a key aspect of personal development (Oxford, 2017). The constructs of motivation and LLSs are crucial determinants of a language learner’s success in learning and mastering the target language(s). However, they have been largely examined separately in empirical studies. That is, they tend to be perceived as separate entities, although the scientific community has long established that motivation significantly influences a language learner’s choice of LLSs (Oxford & Nyikos, 1989). This interplay between motivation and LLSs use creates a dynamic where each reinforces the other, leading to more effective and sustained language learning outcomes. 3 With the above in mind, the present empirical study seeks to explore the motivations of a group of Kazakhstani undergraduate students to learn Japanese, the LLSs they use, and the challenges they may face. 1.1 Background of the Study The present qualitative study takes place in Kazakhstan, a country known for its diverse linguistic heritage. As the largest country in Central Asia, Kazakhstan shares borders with Russia, China, and several other Central Asian nations, thus bridging Europe with Asia (Manan & Hajar, 2022). It is home to over 130 ethnic groups which makes it a multilingual and multicultural nation (Goodman et al., 2021). Kazakhstan stands out as the first country among the Central Asian nations to adopt a trilingual education system with Kazakh, Russian, and English. Additionally, Kazakhstan is home to more than 57 universities that offer English medium instruction (EMI), according to data from 2019 academic year (Tajik et al. 2023). This further proves that, like many other nations with an agenda focused on global economic advancement, Kazakhstan is also placing a high value on English (Reagan, 2019). In recent years, there has been a growing interest in learning LOTEs in Kazakhstan, including Japanese. Due to the scarcity of data, the specific reasons for this increase in the number of students studying Japanese in Kazakhstan are not entirely clear. Based on data from The Japan Foundation (2021), which is one of the largest organizations dedicated to promoting cultural exchange and Japanese language education globally, the predominant reasons for individuals in Eastern Europe and Central Asia to pursue Japanese language studies are driven by an interest in Japanese pop culture, such as anime and manga, a fascination with Japanese history, and the aspiration to access educational and professional opportunities in Japan. 4 As of 2020, eight institutions in Kazakhstan offer Japanese language education, including two national universities that provide Japanese language courses at both undergraduate and graduate levels (Rustemova et al., 2020). While Japanese is typically offered as an elective subject at many institutions, some universities, such as Al-Farabi Kazakh National University and Eurasian National University, have integrated Japanese language education into their specialized programs. These institutions collectively employ a faculty of 40 teachers and professors dedicated to Japanese language instruction. Beyond these official figures, it is reasonable to infer that numerous private sector schools also offer Japanese language lessons (The Japan Foundation, 2020; 2021). Kazakhstan administers the Japanese Language Proficiency Test (JLPT) annually in Astana, its capital, and in Almaty. According to official data from the JLPT, the primary motivations for candidates outside of Japan to take the test are to evaluate their own Japanese language proficiency, enhance their employment prospects, and fulfill admission requirements for universities or graduate schools. The number of examinees in Kazakhstan has increased significantly growing from 98 in 2016 to 265 in 2023 in a single city (Japan Foundation, 2016; 2023). 1.2 Problem Statement Despite the growing interest in learning Japanese as LOTEs in Kazakhstan, there are significant gaps that need to be addressed in both practice and research. Firstly, while there is a considerable amount of research on motivation in language learning, studies focusing on motivations beyond English are scarce, especially in Asian contexts (Hajar & Manan, 2024; Ushioda & Dörnyei, 2017). In response to the multilingual turn in SLA (May 2014; Ortega, 2019), language researchers have been increasingly aware of the salience of conducting further empirical studies to capture individuals situated and dynamic experiences while learning LOTEs and how learning LOTEs can affect their 5 identity development and future selves (Takahashi, 2022). In this vein, the recent volume edited by Hajar and Manan (2024) can be considered the first volume that specifically addressed individuals’ motivations for learning LOTEs across different Asian contexts, including Kazakhstan, Japan, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, Syria, and Vietnam. However, the chapter on Kazakhstan focuses on university students’ experiences learning Korean as a LOTEs. Therefore, it can be concluded that no empirical study has been conducted in Central Asia to unravel individuals situated experiences of learning Japanese. The present study conducted at one of the universities in Kazakhstan aims to address this gap. The absence of empirical research exploring the experiences of Kazakhstani students learning Japanese represents significant gap in the literature. Despite the growing interest reflected in the rising JLPT participation and events like Japanese Culture Day and classical Japanese theatrical performances of Rakugo (Embassy of Japan in the Republic of Kazakhstan, 2024), little is known about what motivates these students and the strategies they use to overcome challenges. This qualitative study reported in this thesis, therefore, is crucial as it represents the first attempt to empirically examine university students’ motivations and strategic language learning efforts of this unique group learning Japanese in Kazakhstan. By filling this gap, the research not only contributes to a deeper understanding of language learning dynamics in Kazakhstan but also offers practical insights for educators and policymakers to motivate students to learn LOTEs and enhance their experiences in multilingual and multicultural contexts. This study can also pave the way for future research in similar contexts, thereby broadening the scope of inquiry into LOTEs and contributing to the global discourse on multilingual education. 6 1.3 Purpose of the Study and Research Questions Previous research indicates that students learning Japanese as LOTEs are primarily motivated by an interest in Japanese popular culture, including anime (shortened from animation, cartoons made in Japan), manga (Japanese comics), or history as well as opportunities for studying abroad (Marian, 2023; Nakamura, 2021; Osumi, 2019). This finding aligns with test-taker data from the JLPT (2023). However, there is an absence of empirical studies in Central Asia, including Kazakhstan, investigating motivations for learning Japanese and their LLSs in dealing with a host of challenges they often encounter. With the above in mind, this empirical study aims to address this research gap by disentangling the motivations and LLSs exclusively of students from a university in Kazakhstan who are majoring in Japanese. The purpose of this empirical study is to explore and understand the diverse motivations that drive university students in Kazakhstan to learn Japanese. Additionally, it seeks to identify the effective LLSs used by these students in their pursuit of Japanese proficiency. The primary aim of this study is to explore the motivational factors and strategic approaches of Kazakhstani university students learning Japanese as a LOTEs. To achieve this, the study is guided by the following research questions: 1. What motivated the participants to learn Japanese as an additional language? 2. What challenges did they encounter while learning Japanese? 3. How did they cope with these challenges (i.e. their strategy use)? 1.4 Significance of the Study The significance of this research lies in its pioneering exploration of Kazakhstani university students’ motivations and LLSs for Japanese. As the first empirical study of its kind in Kazakhstan, it addresses a critical gap in the existing literature by providing 7 insights into the specific factors driving students to learn Japanese and how these factors influence their learning outcomes. First, the present empirical study can uncover the unique motivational drivers behind Kazakhstani students’ interest in Japanese, which can offer valuable context- specific insights that inform the development of more effective educational programs. Understanding these motivations will possibly allow educators and policymakers to tailor their approaches to better align with students’ personal and professional aspirations. Second, by identifying the challenges faced by learners, the research can reveal the obstacles in the language acquisition process, enabling the creation of targeted strategies to address these difficulties. This practical guidance is essential for developing interventions that can improve student engagement and reduce demotivation. Third, the research can potentially advance theoretical and empirical knowledge in the field of multilingualism and motivation. Finally, the study addresses significant practical gaps in support and resources for Kazakhstani students studying Japanese. It can reveal the need for enhanced local resources, language immersion opportunities, and high-quality teaching tools. 1.5 Organization of the Thesis This thesis comprises six chapters. Chapter 1 introduced the study by providing background information, explaining the rationale for undertaking the research, and detailing the study’s aims and research questions. Chapter 2, the literature review, discusses recent research on language learning motivation and strategies, explores studies related to learning languages other than English, and presents the theoretical framework guiding the study. Chapter 3, methodology, describes the research design, participant selection, data collection procedures, and data analysis methods. Chapter 4 presents the findings from the interviews, organized into three major themes: motivations to study Japanese, challenges in learning and advancing Japanese proficiency, and language 8 learning strategies. Chapter 5 critically discusses the findings in relation to the research questions, relevant literature, and the theoretical framework, highlighting new insights and connections. Finally, Chapter 6 concludes the thesis by summarizing the key findings, discussing the study’s limitations, proposing practical implications, and offering directions for future research. 1.6 Summary This chapter introduced the study and provided the necessary background for understanding it. The present study explores the motivations, learning strategies, and challenges involved in acquiring Japanese in Kazakhstan among undergraduate students. The importance of this study lies in its alignment with the current research trend focusing on motivations for learning languages other than English, as well as in its distinction as the first study of its kind in the region. In the problem statement section, three research questions guiding the empirical study were presented. Additionally, the academic significance of the study was described. The chapter concluded with an overview of the organization of the thesis, outlining the structure of the entire work. The next chapter, the literature review, will further expand on the recent body of research briefly introduced in Chapter 1 and present the theoretical framework underlying the empirical investigation. 9 Chapter 2: Literature Review The previous chapter provided background information on Kazakhstan’s linguistic landscape and outlined the research problems, objectives, and research questions. It highlighted the study’s significance, which centers on a qualitative exploration of the motivations and language learning strategies (LLSs) employed by a group of undergraduate students in Kazakhstan learning Japanese as an additional language. This chapter is organized into five sections. It begins by defining the construct of motivation within the field of second language acquisition (SLA). The chapter then examines the dominance of English as a global lingua franca and its implications for learning languages other than English (LOTEs). Following this, the chapter critically reviews LLSs, beginning with their emergence, definitions, and Oxford’s (1990) influential taxonomy, which categorizes strategies into six subtypes across direct and indirect domains. The chapter continues with a review of empirical studies focusing on the motivations and strategic efforts of learners studying Japanese as LOTEs. The chapter concludes by presenting the theoretical framework underpinning this study, which integrates Dörnyei’s (2009) L2 motivational self-system (L2MSS) and Oxford’s (1990) classification of LLSs. 2.1 Defining the term Motivation, its Emergence and Importance in SLA According to Dörnyei and Ushioda the construct of motivation derives from the Latin term movere, meaning to move (2021). They define motivation as the force that determines why individuals select a particular course of action, how long they sustain it, and the level of effort they are willing to exert. They further claim that the notion of motivation is both vast and dynamic, making it difficult to define or capture fully, and state that “no existing motivation theory to date has managed or even attempted to offer a 10 comprehensive and integrative account of all the main types of possible motives for human behavior” (p. 3). 2.1.1 Early Developments in Motivation Research Gardner and Lambert were the first to conduct research on motivation in language learning, introducing a socio-psychological model that consisted of two concepts of integrativeness and instrumentalism (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2021). Integrativeness, or integrative motivation refers to a language learner’s positive attitude toward the language and culture and the individual’s openness to that culture. On the other hand, instrumental motivation focuses on the practical advantages of language learning, highlighting the benefits individuals associate with learning the target language, such as improving career prospects or gaining economic opportunities (Gardner, 1985; Gardner & Lambert, 1972; Gardner & MacIntyre, 1992). Building on Gardner and Lambert’s foundational work, researchers have introduced other theories to further nuance the understanding of language learning motivation by exploring the connection between a language learner’s present and their envisioned future state. To elaborate, Higgins’s (1987) self-discrepancy theory posits that language learners are motivated to close the gap, or discrepancy, between their current self and their ideal or future self, as this gap often causes psychological discomfort which motivates students to achieve the envisioned self. The theory identifies three components, the ideal self, which represents the learner’s envisioned future self, embodying their hopes and aspirations for who they want to become, such as a fluent speaker of the target language; the ought self, which reflects the version of themselves they feel they should become, often shaped by external expectations or perceived obligations, such as meeting societal or familial expectations; and the actual self, which describes the learner’s current state, encompassing their present abilities and identity in relation to language learning 11 (Lamb et al., 2019, p. 73). This framework explains motivation as a process of striving toward self-alignment, where reducing discrepancies between these self-concepts can drive sustained language learning efforts. Another significant influence on the foundations of motivation studies is Markus and Nurius’s (1986) possible selves theory, which connects motivation with cognition by incorporating learners’ aspirations, fears, goals, and perceived threats. Possible selves refer to the imagined versions of oneself in the future, encompassing both hopeful visions of success and fears of failure. For language learners, possible selves include images of oneself as a fluent speaker, a successful language user, or, conversely, struggling without proficiency (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2021; Lamb et al., 2020). Both self-discrepancy theory and possible selves theory hold particular significance for the present study’s theoretical framework, which employs Dörnyei’s L2 motivational self-system (L2MSS). By building on these foundational frameworks, the L2MSS provides a comprehensive model for examining language learner motivation, making it a crucial component of the present empirical study. This framework will be elaborated in detail in the theoretical framework section that guides the present qualitative study. 2.1.2 The Role of Motivation in SLA Research Motivation has been extensively studied as a key factor influencing learners’ outcomes in the field of SLA. This field examines how individuals acquire a second language (L2) as opposed to first language (L1) acquisition, which occurs naturally and subconsciously during early childhood. Learning an additional language, however, requires deliberate effort, strategic decision-making, and sustained perseverance to achieve proficiency (Ellis, 2008). This statement echoes Dörnyei and Ottó (1998) who defined motivation as the inner drive within an individual that initiates, directs, and regulates actions. The dynamic process of motivation stimulates and coordinates the cognitive and 12 physical activities necessary for transforming initial goals and desires into prioritized and actionable outcomes. Dörnyei (2005) argues that “motivation provides the primary impetus to initiate L2 learning and later the driving force to sustain the long and often tedious learning process; indeed, all the other factors involved in SLA presuppose motivation to some extent” (p. 65). Dörnyei’s statement emphasizes that motivation is not only a catalyst for starting language learning but also critical for maintaining the sustained effort required for continued progress. In the same vein, Ellis (2008) noted that “no single individual differences factor in language learning has received as much attention as motivation” (p. 677), highlighting its central role in SLA research. Elsewhere, Ellis (2015) claims that motivation profoundly influences a language learner’s ability to set and pursue goals with sustained effort. While motivation has been a prominent focus within SLA research, much of the literature has concentrated primarily on English language learning motivation, often to the exclusion of other languages (Henry & Thorsen, 2018; May, 2019). This English-centric focus has shaped the field, with studies exploring motivations for LOTEs remain comparatively limited (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2021). The present study examines a group of university students’ Japanese language learning motivation in Kazakhstan, it is essential to consider how the global dominance of English has influenced both the scope and focus of language learning motivation research. This topic will be further discussed in the following section of this chapter. 2.2 Motivation Research in the Context of Global English The prominence of English as a global lingua franca is well-documented, largely due to its significant economic advantages in the contemporary world (Hennebry-Leung & Gao, 2023). Several language researchers contend that English is a symbol of global economic power that creates language hierarchies, social exclusion, and linguistic 13 marginalization, thereby privileging English at the expense of other languages (Kubota, 2016; Manan & Hajar, 2022; Piller & Cho, 2013). In this regard, Ushioda (2017) argues that individuals’ motivation to learn English has been largely associated with instrumental benefits—such as social mobility, economic advancement, and cosmopolitanism—more than a personal, idealized vision of language proficiency. 2.2.1 The Influence of Global English on Motivation to Learn LOTEs Thus, learning English is often perceived as more important than learning languages other than English (LOTEs), positioning English as the preferred choice in language learning contexts (Takahashi, 2023). This phenomenon is captured by Dörnyei and Al-Hoorie (2017), who describe the learning of LOTEs as taking place “in the shadow of Global English” (p. 457). Data collected in Europe, for example, shows that 79% of Europeans would choose English for their children to learn, reflecting the widespread recognition of its instrumental advantages (The Eurobarometer, 2012). Language researchers have predominately focused on exploring the motivations of learning English by non-native speakers of English. To illustrate, Boo et al. (2015) reported that research on L2 motivation in Asian contexts has overwhelmingly concentrated on English, resulting in limited insights into the motivations behind learning LOTEs. They reported that over 70% of motivation studies conducted between 2005 and 2014 focused solely on English as the target language. English is the most in-demand foreign language in Central Asia (Hajar et al., 2023; Manan & Hajar, 2022) as well as in other Asian contexts (e.g., Hennebry-Leung & Gao, 2023). As a result, it increasingly risks overshadowing the motivation to study LOTEs, including Japanese. Several empirical studies have shown the negative impact that English dominance can have on motivation for LOTEs (Csizér & Lukács, 2010; Henry, 2011; Ushioda, 2017). For instance, Csizér and Lukács (2010) found that Hungarian secondary school students 14 who initially learned English retained high motivation for both English and German. Yet, when German was introduced before English, motivational interference occurred, leading to a significant decline in motivation for German. Similarly, Henry (2011) found that dominant self-concepts tied to English as an L2 could reduce motivation for learning LOTEs. When English is prioritized as the primary pathway to social and economic mobility, students in English as a foreign language (EFL) may perceive less value in pursuing additional languages, thereby limiting their motivation to invest in LOTEs learning. Recent empirical studies examining the direct impact of English on LOTEs motivation consistently report that students often perceive little need to invest in learning additional languages, given English’s widespread global utility and communicative reach (Henry, 2015; Takahashi, 2023) 2.2.2 The Multilingual Turn in SLA and Growing Interest in Learning LOTEs Henry (2010) notes that, for over a decade, theoretical investigations into L2 motivation have primarily focused on contexts involving monolingual learners who study one specific L2, with a predominant emphasis on English. This focus, Henry argues, has shaped much of the discourse around L2 motivation, inherently limiting its applicability and scope to broader multilingual settings. Henry (2017) extends this critique by highlighting how the predominance of English in global L2 research is compounded by the theoretical limitations inherent in widely referenced paradigms. For instance, Gardner’s (2001) socio-educational model and Dörnyei’s (2009) LSMSS are built on monolingual frameworks, largely oriented toward understanding learners’ motivation in contexts dominated by English language acquisition. This monolingual-centric approach risks marginalizing multilingual learners’ experiences and may overlook the complex and dynamic nature of L2 motivation in increasingly multilingual and multicultural learning environments. Such theoretical paradigms, Henry (2017) suggests, need recalibration to 15 more accurately reflect and accommodate the realities of learners navigating multiple languages and diverse linguistic identities. Although researchers in the field of L2 motivation have been criticized for adhering to a no difference assumption (Henry & Thorsen, 2018) that overlooks variations in language learning contexts, there has been a recent shift in scholarly focus. Increasingly, studies are moving beyond the traditional emphasis on English as a second language to explore motivations for learning LOTEs. Additionally, some research now concurrently examines motivations for both English and LOTEs, as demonstrated by recently published books such as Hajar and Manan (2024) and Takahashi (2023). This broader scope reflects a growing recognition of the diverse factors shaping multilingual learning experiences. These findings align with the multilingual turn SLA (May, 2014), marking a shift in how language learning motivation is studied. The multilingual turn in SLA reflects a shift from idealized models of language learning—where a monolingual speaker is assumed to be acquiring a single L2—to frameworks that recognize the complex, fluid, and multicultural linguistic landscapes that characterize modern societies (May, 2014; Ortega, 2013). At present, individuals frequently encounter multiple languages at different stages of life, making multilingualism normative experience rather than exception. Scholars argue that SLA research should better reflect the multilingual contexts in which learners operate, rather than centering exclusively on English (Henry, 2017; May, 2019; Ortega, 2019). This shift underscores the importance of studying LOTEs within SLA, recognizing that language learners’ motivations and experiences may extend beyond instrumental benefits, such as those typically associated with English, to include cultural attraction and personal engagement. For instance, languages like Japanese often exhibit strong cultural appeal, which can be a powerful motivator for language learners (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2021). 16 Given that the present study seeks to understand not only the challenges the participants have encountered while learning Japanese as a LOTEs but also their LLSs in dealing with diverse challenges, the coming section will describe the main issues associated with the LLSs research. 2.3 Language Learning Strategies Research: Insights and Criticism The previous section defined the concept of motivation and explored its role in language learning. Furthermore, it was stated that many scholars recognized the impact of Global English in shaping learners’ motivation and that studies reveal that students prioritize learning English over LOTEs (Takahashi, 2023; Ushioda, 2017; ). While motivation is crucial for initiating language learning, it is increasingly evident that motivation alone is not enough without strategic actions (Mercer, 2017). In this regard, Dörnyei and Kubanyiova (2014) point out that a language learner’s motivations to learn or master the target language should be underpinned by appropriate and effective procedural strategies that function as a structured pathway towards the intended goal, much like the meticulously planned training schedule of an elite athlete (p. 11). In other words, the adoption of effective LLSs aligned with one’s envisioned future is considered fundamental to realizing that vision; without such strategies, the vision risks devolving into an idealized notion lacking tangible ambition (Lamb, 2013). Furthermore, Oxford (2017) states that LLSs are essential to complement motivation, enabling learners to navigate challenges actively and sustain their language progress. Combining motivation with LLSs use is key to effective language acquisition (Hajar, 2024; Gao, 2010; Jun Zhang & Xiao, 2006). With this in mind, the present empirical study reported in this thesis aims to explore the motivations and LLSs used by a group of Kazakhstani university students learning Japanese as LOTEs in Kazakhstan. 17 2.3.1 Defining Language Learning Strategies The earliest emergence of LLSs research started with Joan Rubin’s (1975) seminal study on the good language learner (GLL). Rubin sought to understand why certain language learners outperformed other counterparts despite similar backgrounds. Rubin’s work identified behaviors and strategies that characterized successful learners, including self-monitoring their speech and actively engaging in practice opportunities, such as interacting with native speakers or watching films to enhance cultural understanding. (Rubin, 1975). Those strategies were identified by Rubin in order to teach the less successful language learners the ways GLLs acquired the L2 (Gao, 2010; Hajar, 2019, 2024). Rubin’s work was fundamental and laid a foundation for subsequent studies that further classified and identified other strategies (Chamot, 2001; Stern, 1975). Despite these early advancements, the definition of LLSs has remained a contentious topic, undergoing extensive debate and refinement over the years. Rebecca Oxford, a leading researcher in this field, critically examined and synthesized 33 widely accepted definitions in her seminal work (Oxford, 2017). She proposed a new, unbiased definition that avoids alignment with existing theoretical frameworks, defining LLSs as “the learner’s plan of action for finding or following the desired track through experience, study, or by being taught” (Oxford, 2017, p. 13). Other prominent researchers in the field of LLSs have also introduced their own definitions of the construct of LLSs. For example, Griffiths (2008) emphasized the intentionality of strategies, describing them as “activities consciously chosen by learners for the purpose of regulating their own language learning” (p. 87). Cohen (2011) provided a complementary view, focusing on the learner’s conscious decision-making, defining strategies as “thoughts and behaviors used by learners with the intent to assist them in learning and using a language” (p. 7). These definitions highlight 18 the cognitive and regulatory dimensions of LLSs, underscoring their role in facilitating autonomous language learning. 2.3.2 Oxford’s Taxonomy of LLSs Regarding the classification of LLSs, Oxford’s (1990) taxonomy of LLSs has significantly shaped the field, addressing limitations in prior classifications and offering a detailed framework that is still widely used. Her classification organizes LLSs into two main categories, direct and indirect, each comprising three subcategories. This taxonomy forms a key component of the theoretical framework for this study, as it provides a comprehensive lens through which the strategies employed by Japanese language learners can be analyzed. Direct strategies include memory, cognitive, and compensation strategies, all of which involve learners directly interacting with the target language. Memory strategies focus on storing and retrieving information, using techniques such as visualization, association, and repetition to aid retention. Cognitive strategies involve deeper language processing, enabling learners to understand, practice, and produce the language through methods such as analyzing patterns, using target-language media, or making connections to prior knowledge. Compensation strategies can help language learners overcome knowledge gaps by employing contextual clues, rephrasing, or using gestures to convey meaning. These strategies are particularly relevant in communicative contexts, as they enable learners to function effectively even with limited language proficiency (Oxford, 1990; 2017). Indirect strategies, by contrast, support the learning process indirectly by regulating emotions, planning activities, and fostering social interactions (Oxford, 1990; 2017). Metacognitive strategies enable language learners to organize their approach to learning the target language, including setting goals, monitoring progress, and reflecting on 19 outcomes. Affective strategies can are often used by language learners to address the emotional aspects of learning, such as managing anxiety, maintaining motivation, or taking risks in language use. Social strategies involve interacting with others to enhance learning, such as seeking feedback, collaborating with peers, or understanding cultural norms (Oxford, 1990). By breaking down O’Malley and Chamot’s (1990) socio-affective category into distinct social and affective dimensions, Oxford’s taxonomy provides a more granular understanding of how learners navigate both personal and interpersonal dimensions of language acquisition. In addition to the categorization, Oxford has created the widely used strategy inventory for language learning (SILL) based on these six categories of the LLSs. This self-questionnaire has been used for students to assess their LLSs and reveal strong strategies that they can use in order to enhance their language learning further. This questionnaire has been translated into 20 languages and completed by more than 10,000 language learners worldwide. It comprises 50 items measured on a Likert scale and is widely regarded as a simple and user-friendly tool for assessing language learning strategies (Hajar, 2019; Oxford, 2017; Takeuchi, 2003). 2.4 Empirical Studies on Learning Japanese as an Additional Language While there is substantial research on motivations in learning Japanese in countries such as the United States, China, and Australia (Gao & Lv, 2018; Nakamura, 2017; Northwood & Thomson, 2012), the experiences of students in regions such as Central Asia remains unclear. As the demand for Japanese language education grows in Kazakhstan, understanding the specific motivations, challenges, and strategies of learners in this region is critical. To frame the present study, it is crucial to analyze existing empirical studies on the motivations and learning strategies of Japanese language learners worldwide. 20 2.4.1 Research on Motivational Factors for Learning Japanese The motivation for learning Japanese as L2 is shaped by a variety of factors across different contexts, including the United States, China, Australia, and Malaysia. Research indicates that the motivations for learning Japanese often fall into two key categories: instrumental goals, such as career advancement (Gao & Lv, 2018; Huang & Feng, 2019), and integrative goals, like cultural engagement and personal interest (Shintaku, 2021; Northwood & Thomson, 2012). For instance, a mixed-methods study conducted by Shintaku (2021) involving 270 students at a public university in the southwestern United States revealed that a strong attraction to Japanese popular culture—particularly anime and music—was the predominant motivational factor aspect of their engagement with cultural artifacts. Moreover, the students exposure to situational language use and cultural nuances was facilitated through the consumption of Japanese media, which provided a rich and immersive context for their language learning. In a similar vein, Huang and Feng (2019), in their cross-sectional study involving 55 Chinese students across three different years of study at a Chinese university, concluded that factors such as childhood interest in and early exposure to Japanese culture significantly influenced students’ motivations to pursue Japanese as a subject at the university level. These findings align with several other studies (e.g., Gao & Lv, 2018; Northwood & Thomson, 2012), further demonstrating the role of early cultural engagement in shaping individuals’ language learning motivations of LOTEs. Moreover, Huang and Feng (2019) observed that the students in their study, particularly those in their first year of university, were primarily motivated by their initial exposure to Japanese culture. These students appeared to be in the “honeymoon” phase of their university experience, characterized by enthusiasm and idealism. During this period, academic choices were often guided by personal feelings and emotional connections, such 21 as a fascination with Japanese cultural elements or a desire to engage with subjects that resonated with their newfound interests. In contrast, second and third year students in that study tended to be more motivated by instrumental factors, including preparing for impending exams and developing skills to enhance their future employability. Similar findings were reported by Teo et al. (2019) in their mixed-methods study involving 398 university students in China, supplemented by follow-up interviews with 12 selected individuals. The study revealed that potential employment opportunities were the key motivating factors, alongside intercultural communication and building friendships. Furthermore, the findings have been corroborated by research on Japanese language learners in other Asian contexts, such as Malaysia (Md Yunus et al., 2022) and Thailand (Jitpaiboon et al., 2024). The findings indicate that students in the later years of their university education are particularly motivated to learn Japanese by explicit career-related goals, emphasizing the importance of instrumental motivations in shaping their strategic language learning efforts. 2.4.2 Challenges of Learning Japanese in Different Contexts As regards students’ challenges for learning Japanese as an additional language, a few empirical studies have explored the challenges they often encountered to learn and master Japanese. These challenges are frequently linked to factors such as linguistic differences (de Burgh-Hirabe, 2019; Matsumoto & Obana, 2001; Saito & Samimy, 1996), which result in a steeper learning curve for students whose native languages differ significantly from Japanese. Japanese can be particularly challenging for students without prior exposure to writing systems similar to those used in the language. Kanji, commonly known as Chinese characters, are especially difficult to master. Matsumoto and Obana (2001) found that while kanji learning does not necessarily demotivate students, it poses significant challenges. Their quantitative survey, conducted in three Canadian universities 22 with participants from non-kanji backgrounds, highlighted that teaching ineffective methods and negative instructor attitudes presented even greater obstacles. Similarly, Mori et al. (2007) examined kanji learning among 80 college students in the United States with no prior kanji experience. Their study revealed that a lack of confidence and anxiety discouraged students, making their Japanese studies more difficult. Additional challenges have been associated with societal pressures which perpetuated negative perceptions of learning Japanese in some cases, discouraging some students from pursuing their Japanese language studies (Gao & Lv, 2018; Teo et al., 2019) Language interference, particularly with English, further complicates the learning process, as students tended to struggle with prioritizing one language over another (Jitpaiboon et al., 2024; Nakamura, 2017; Shintaku, 2022). For example, Gao and Lv (2018), in their mixed-methods study involving 665 questionnaire participants and 38 interviewees from Chinese universities, found that many students were initially discouraged from studying Japanese due to sociopolitical tensions between Japan and China, and only later discovered motivations to continue their studies. These motivations were largely rooted in their desire to bridge the cultural gap between the two nations. When examining the challenges of language interference during Japanese language studies, Nakamura (2017), in his PhD thesis, found that Korean participants learning Japanese experienced a decline in motivation due to the difficulty of studying Japanese alongside English. English was perceived as a language offering greater economic opportunities, hence often took priority. Similarly, Huang and Feng (2019) reported that second-year university students studying Japanese faced challenges in preparing for both English and Japanese proficiency exams within the same year. As a result, students frequently prioritized English, viewing it as more beneficial for their future economic prospects, often at the expense of their Japanese studies. 23 2.5 Theoretical framework The preceding sections explored the motivations and challenges faced by learners of Japanese as LOTEs across different countries, situating this study within the broader context of SLA research. This section introduces the theoretical framework of the present study which is based on Oxford’s (1990) classification of LLSs explained in the previous section, and Dörnyei’s (2009) L2 motivational self-system (L2MSS) which provides a robust basis for analyzing both the motivational orientations and the strategic efforts of students in Kazakhstan learning Japanese. Dörnyei’s (2009) L2MSS represents an amalgamation of SLA research and mainstream psychological theories. It draws on foundational works by scholars such as Gardner and Lambert, Markus and Nurius, and Higgins (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2021; Lamb et al., 2017; Nakamura, 2017). The L2MSS consists of three key components: the ideal L2 self, the ought-to L2 self, and the L2 learning experience. The ideal L2 self is conceptualized as an internally driven construct, representing an individual’s envisioned future self, characterized by the attainment of desirable attributes. These attributes may encompass prosperity, happiness, success, and achievement, with a particular focus on linguistic competence and proficiency in the target language for L2 learners to fulfill personal ambitions like traveling to Japan, studying at a Japanese university, or working in a multinational company. This component is closely tied to language learners’ hopes and long-term goals, serving as a powerful motivator to bridge the gap between their current abilities and their envisioned future selves. In contrast, the ought-to L2 self represents what the learner believes they should become, often shaped by external expectations and obligations. For instance, learners may feel compelled to meet family expectations to study Japanese for career advancement or respond to societal pressures to master the language due to its prestige in academic or 24 professional circles. Finally, the L2 learning experience encompasses the learner’s immediate environment and activities influencing their motivation. These include positive classroom interactions, such as forming study groups or participating in cultural events. Together, these components dynamically interact to shape the learner’s motivation in the language acquisition process. L2MSS redefines L2 motivation by focusing on the learner’s internal vision of their future self as a language user, making the system dynamic and deeply personal. It integrates cognitive, affective, and social dimensions of motivation, offering a comprehensive framework that captures a broad spectrum of motivational factors. One of the model’s most distinctive features is its adaptability across diverse learning contexts. Boo et al.(2015) emphasize that the L2MSS provides a holistic perspective on motivation by addressing critiques of earlier frameworks, particularly the lack of emphasis on learners’ vision and agency. A meta-analysis by Al-Hoorie (2018) further confirmed the model’s empirical robustness and significant contributions to understanding L2 motivation. As explained in the previous section, Oxford’s (1990) classification of LLSs complements the L2MSS by providing insights into how learners operationalize their motivation through specific learning strategies. As explained earlier Oxford’s taxonomy organizes strategies into direct and indirect types, encompassing six subcategories: memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social strategies (for more elaboration about these strategies, see the previous section of this chapter). This framework categorizes the tools learners use to navigate the complexities of language acquisition, addressing both cognitive and emotional aspects of the process. Thus, the present study uses Oxford’s taxonomy that offers a systematic approach to identifying and categorizing the strategic behaviors of study participants. 25 2.6 Summary This chapter outlined the theoretical and empirical landscape underpinning this study. It began by defining motivation within SLA and tracing its evolution from Gardner’s socio-educational model to the emergence of socio-dynamic perspectives. Next, it explored the dominance of English as a global lingua franca its impact on the motivation to learn LOTEs, highlighting the instrumental and cultural factors driving language acquisition. The chapter then addressed the multilingual turn in SLA, arguing that multilingualism fosters the value of multilingualism in understanding of LOTEs learning. Examples and discussions of empirical studies on Japanese language learning in global and Asian contexts were also provided to situate the present study. Finally, Dörnyei’s L2MSS and Oxford’s (1990) classification of LLSs were introduced as the theoretical framework guiding this research. The next chapter, Methodology, will introduce the research design used in this empirical study, highlight the essential aspect of participant exploration, and describe the methods used to collect data from the participants. 26 Chapter 3: Methodology The previous chapter provided an overview of the existing literature on language learning motivation and language learning strategies (LLSs) within the field of second language acquisition (SLA), with a particular focus on Japanese language acquisition. Key empirical studies were reviewed, highlighting the motivations, challenges, and LLSs Japanese language learners often use in various global contexts such as the USA, China and Australia. Additionally, the theoretical framework underpinning this study—Dörnyei’s (2009) L2MSS and Oxford’s (1990) classification of LLSs—was discussed in detail to establish the foundation for this research. Notably, this is the first empirical study into the motivations and LLSs used by university students studying Japanese language education in Central Asia, thereby addressing a critical gap in the existing literature. To achieve the aim of understanding Kazakhstan’s university students’ motivations and the LLSs they employ to overcome challenges in learning Japanese, this study is guided by the following research questions: 1. What motivated the participants to learn Japanese as an additional language? 2. What challenges did they encounter while learning Japanese? 3. How did they cope with these challenges (i.e., their language learning strategy use)? This chapter focuses on the research design adopted for the present empirical study and provides justifications for the selected methodology. It describes the research site and sampling process, details the data collection instruments and procedures, and explains the approach to data analysis. 3.1 Research Design The present study adopts a qualitative, multiple-case study approach, chosen for its ability to capture the complex constructs of motivation and LLSs among university 27 students learning Japanese in Kazakhstan. A qualitative approach is particularly well- suited to exploring individual learners’ experiences within specific social, cultural, and psychological contexts, providing depth and detail that quantitative methods often overlook (Boo et al., 2015; Johnson & Christensen, 2024). Ushioda emphasizes the importance of introspective research approaches to understand the qualitative developments in motivational experiences over time, particularly within institutionalized learning contexts (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2021). She notes that motivation is often characterized by flux rather than stability, with dynamic interplays between contextual factors and individual motivation. Such a qualitative lens allows for a deeper exploration of these dynamic processes, extending beyond static measures of motivational growth or loss to uncover the nuanced and evolving relationship between context and motivation. In contrast to quantitative methods, which are more appropriate for identifying general patterns across large samples, qualitative research provides a more detailed exploration of the nuanced social interactions and psychological factors that students encounter while studying Japanese (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2021; Takahashi, 2022). This depth is essential because L2 motivation, particularly in LOTEs, goes beyond general trends to encompass how language learners’ situated experiences shape their motivations and the LLSs they undertake in the context of their lived realities (Dörnyei, 2007; Yan, 2023). The present research employed an exploratory, instrumental multiple-case study approach because it sought to move beyond the predominant focus on motivation-counting questionnaire results (i.e., generalization) that characterize much of the existing research on L2 motivation. Instead, the present study emphasizes specificity and authenticity, viewing individuals’ L2 motivations as a dynamic and context-dependent phenomenon. The notion of a case is inclusive, encompassing both relatively simple entities—such as an 28 individual child, adult, learner, or a person’s experiences and life stages—and more complex or collective entities, including institutions, campaigns, regions, or neighborhoods (Yin, 2014, p. 15). Additionally, the present study approach aligns with the theoretical foundations of Dörnyei’s (2009) L2MSS, which aims to uncover and explore in-depth the similarities and variations in how the participants perceive the target language and interact with their specific learning environments. This methodological approach is well-aligned with the objectives of the present study, which seeks to examine the underlying motivations of students in Kazakhstan for selecting Japanese as their major, the challenges they encounter, and the strategies they implement to address these challenges. It offers a robust framework for analyzing real- world phenomena within specific contextual settings, thereby generating nuanced insights into both individual and collective experiences that can be extrapolated to analogous contexts (Merriam, 2009). 3.2 Research Site and Sample The present research was conducted at a selective university in Kazakhstan, renowned for its Oriental Studies program, which includes Japanese language courses. This institution was chosen due to its relevance to the present study’s focus on Japanese language education and its accessibility to the researcher. While the university offers Japanese language courses to students from various departments, this study specifically targeted students majoring in Japanese as an L2 within the Oriental Studies program. This decision was made to focus on participants who had been engaging with Japanese language learning as a central part of their academic curriculum, ensuring that their experiences and insights were directly relevant to the research objectives. To gain access to the research site, the researcher contacted Japanese language instructor at the Oriental Studies program university via email and requested permission to 29 conduct the study. The email included details about the research purpose, ethical considerations, and the proposed methodology. After receiving approval, a link to a Google Form was shared with students enrolled in Japanese courses, allowing them to express their interest in participating. In the participation form, students were first required to familiarize themselves with their rights as participants and were provided with a brief explanation of the study’s objectives. Prior to initiating contact with the university, ethical approval for this research was obtained from the Graduate School of Education (GSE) Ethics Committee, ensuring compliance with ethical standards for research involving human participants. This study involves ten undergraduate students selected using a non-probability purposeful sampling method. Purposeful sampling was chosen to identify participants who met specific criteria relevant to the study’s objectives and could provide in-depth insights (Cohen et al., 2007). In the present study, particular focus was placed on selecting students in their second year or higher of Japanese language study, on the grounds that these students were more likely to have developed advanced strategies and encountered significant challenges in their Japanese language learning journeys. The Google Form used for participant recruitment included questions about students’ language abilities, specifically their Japanese Language Proficiency Test (JLPT) levels. The JLPT is an internationally recognized standard for assessing Japanese proficiency, with levels ranging from N5 (basic) to N1 (advanced). For this study, participants were required to have achieved at least an N4 level, ensuring they had sufficient experience with the language to discuss their motivations, challenges, and language learning strategies. The selection of students from the second year and above, coupled with a proficiency level of N4 or higher, was deliberate, as these criteria ensured participants had encountered more substantial 30 linguistic and academic challenges and had likely developed effective strategies for addressing them. Additionally, all participants were over 18 years of age, had no prior personal relationship with the researcher to ensure they could express their perceptions more objectively while minimizing potential biases, and represented both genders, promoting objectivity and diversity. This diverse demographic composition allowed the study to capture a broad range of perspectives, enriching the findings and ensuring the reliability of the data. By focusing on this carefully selected research site and sample, the study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the motivations and strategic language learning efforts of Japanese language learners in a structured academic setting. The table below presents general information about the participants. To ensure confidentiality, pseudonyms were assigned in place of their real names. Table 1 Demographic Data of the Participants № Pseudonym Age Gender Level of Japanese (JLPT) Year of Study Language of Instruction 1 Alisher 22 Male N2 4th Kazakh 2 Aigerim 19 Female N3 3rd Russian 3 Gilyana 22 Female N3 4th Kazakh 4 Jamilya 20 Female N2 3rd Russian 5 Arailym 20 Female N3 4th Kazakh 6 Malika 19 Female N4 2nd Russian 7 Anel 18 Female N4 2nd Russian 8 Aidyn 20 Male N3 3rd Russian 9 Andrey 20 Male N2 3rd Russian 10 Amina 21 Female N3 4th Russian Note. Compiled by the author from the obtained data 31 3.3 Data Collection Instruments To collect data, this study employed two qualitative research methods: narrative writing and semi-structured individual interviews. The use of multiple methods aligns with the principle of methodological triangulation, which enhances the validity and credibility of research findings (Denzin, 2017). By employing narrative writing, participants could reflect deeply on their experiences and motivations, providing rich, introspective accounts. Semi-structured interviews complemented this method by allowing for further elaboration and clarification, enabling a more nuanced understanding of the participants’ perspectives. Combining these methods ensured a more comprehensive exploration of the research topic, reducing potential biases and offering a multi-faceted view of the phenomenon under investigation Narrative writing served as a preliminary method, inviting participants to write essays about their experiences of learning Japanese as an additional language. This approach provided valuable background information, established rapport with participants, and helped the researcher shape interview questions based on their written reflections (Hajar, 2018). Narrative writing can offer deep insights into participants’ personal experiences and views on language learning, capturing their inner perspectives and challenges (Barkhuizen et al., 2014; Pavlenko, 2007). Participants were given the option to respond to the narrative writing prompts in Kazakh, Russian, or English, depending on their preference, allowing them to reflect on their Japanese learning journey and the challenges they encountered. The majority of participants chose to respond in Russian. Essay prompts were provided in their chosen language to guide their writing. To guide participants in the narrative writing task, the following open-ended questions were provided: 32 Table 2 Narrative Essay Questions № Questions 1 Could you please write general information about your background (e.g. age, which year are you studying right now, your parents’ job and education, the number of your siblings, the city or town you are from, your interests, etc.)? 2 How many languages can you speak and understand? What are they? 3 When did you start learning Japanese? Did you have prior experience of learning Japanese before entering the university? 4 Why did you decide to learn Japanese? 5 What challenges did you face/are you facing while learning Japanese? 6 What strategies did you use/plan to use to deal with these challenges? 7 What are your current learning goals in terms of the Japanese language? Note. Compiled by the author from the obtained data Participants were given 7 to 10 days to complete their essays and submit them via WhatsApp or email according to their preference. This preliminary method enriched the subsequent interviews by providing valuable context and depth, offering deeper insights into the participants’ experiences. The complete list of narrative essay questions can be found in Appendix B. In addition, this study employed semi-structured individual interviews, which are a qualitative data collection method involving a set of predetermined questions combined with the flexibility to ask follow-up questions based on participants’ responses (Creswell & Poth, 2024). This approach allows for both consistency across interviews and adaptability to explore emerging themes in depth. During the interviews, the researcher asked follow-up questions to clarify or elaborate on responses, endowing each interview with a distinctive personality (Barkhuizen et al., 2014). This particular way of interviewing facilitated a nuanced exploration of how students navigated the challenges associated with their language studies and developed strategies to overcome them. 33 By enabling a comprehensive examination of participants’ language learning processes, semi-structured interviews provided critical insights into the complex and multifaceted dimensions of their experiences (Lamb, 2009). The interviews were conducted face-to-face at mutually agreed-upon locations and at a time convenient for the participants, such as in an empty room at the university. Open-ended questions, with follow-up probes, were employed to gain deeper insights and clarify emerging ideas (Creswell, 2014; Dörnyei, 2007). Each interview was audio-recorded with participants’ consent and lasted approximately 35-45 minutes. The interview questions were designed to explore participants’ motivations, experiences, and challenges in learning Japanese. The interview guide consisted of twenty open-ended questions that encouraged participants to reflect on their Japanese language learning journey. Key areas of focus included their initial interest in Japanese, the factors that sustained their motivation, the obstacles they encountered, and their strategies for overcoming those challenges. For example, questions such as “When did you start learning Japanese?” and “Who or what encouraged you to learn Japanese?” guided the conversation. The complete list of interview questions can be found in Appendix C. Participants were allowed to use Kazakh, Russian, or English during the interviews to ensure they could express their ideas comfortably. Most participants chose to respond primarily in Russian, occasionally incorporating Japanese phrases or words to better convey specific ideas or concepts. This was possible because the researcher was also proficient in Japanese, which allowed for seamless communication and understanding. 3.4 Procedures of Data Collection The data collection for this study followed a carefully structured process to ensure reliability, ethical compliance, and the richness of the data obtained. The procedures 34 involved sequential stages, including ethics approval, piloting of instruments, participant recruitment, informed consent, and the collection and storage of data. Prior to data collection, ethics approval was secured from the GSE Ethics Committee. This approval ensured that the study adhered to institutional and ethical standards for research involving human participants. The application for the ethics clearance included a detailed description of the study’s aims, methods, participant recruitment strategies, and ethical safeguards, such as confidentiality and informed consent. Following ethics approval, the researcher contacted the head of the Oriental Studies Faculty at the research site to seek permission to recruit participants and conduct the study. With the department’s approval, recruitment materials, including a Google Form, were distributed to eligible students via email. The form was available in Kazakh, Russian, and English and included questions about students’ demographic information, year of study, and Japanese proficiency levels, ensuring accessibility for all potential participants. Responses were screened based on inclusion criteria discussed earlier—students in their second year or higher of Japanese studies and with at least an N4 level of Japanese proficiency (as per the JLPT scale). The full contact email for the university is provided in Appendix D. Participants were provided with a printed consent form during their first meeting with the researcher. The consent form outlined the purpose of the study, data collection methods, confidentiality measures, and participants’ rights, including their right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. Participants signed the form before participating in the study, ensuring their informed and voluntary consent. Before starting the interviews, the researcher explained the main aspects of the research and reminded participants of their rights, including issues of anonymity and confidentiality, such as the 35 substitution of participants’ names and secure data storage. The researcher also obtained oral permission to record the interviews for transcription purposes. At the end of the interviews, participants were thanked for their time and contribution and were once again assured of data security and confidentiality. Following the interviews, the recordings were transcribed verbatim to ensure accuracy. The transcriptions were then coded using Braun and Clarke’s (2021) thematic analysis guidelines to identify key patterns and themes. This process involved systematically organizing and interpreting the data to uncover insights into participants’ experiences, motivations, and strategies in learning Japanese. The coding process was essential for constructing a detailed and nuanced understanding of the research questions, contributing to a comprehensive analysis of the study’s findings. 3.5 Data Analysis In qualitative research, thematic analysis (TA) is a method used to identify, analyze, and interpret patterns or themes within data. A theme represents a pattern of meaning that captures something significant about the data concerning the research question. According to Braun and Clarke (2006), themes are the broader interpretive ideas that arise from aggregated codes. In contrast, codes are smaller units of meaning assigned to specific portions of data, often at the phrase or sentence level, that highlight notable features relevant to the study (Braun & Clarke, 2021; Howitt, 2011). Thematic analysis is chosen for its flexibility and accessibility. It is particularly suitable for novice researchers as it does not require in-depth theoretical knowledge (Howitt, 2011). Additionally, it allows researchers to work inductively—letting patterns emerge directly from the data—or deductively, where pre-existing theories guide the analysis. This adaptability makes TA a practical choice for exploring the nuances of motivation and LLSs. While thematic analysis offers these advantages, it is essential to 36 acknowledge its limitations. Howitt (2011) notes that TA can lack standardization, with researchers sometimes providing insufficient detail about their analytical process. Furthermore, its flexibility may lead to superficial analysis if not carried out rigorously, potentially undermining the depth and reliability of findings. Despite these drawbacks, when conducted systematically and with transparency, thematic analysis serves as a robust tool for qualitative inquiry. The researcher followed Braun and Clarke’s (2006; 2013) six-phase approach, beginning with an immersive familiarization with the data through the transcription of interviews and repeated readings of the transcripts actively and analytically while highlighting the lines relevant to research questions and the theoretical framework adopted in this study. This foundational step allowed the researcher to deeply engage with the participants’ narratives and gain a holistic understanding of their motivations and LLSs. After becoming familiar with the data, the next phase involved generating initial codes, which were developed inductively to capture specific segments related to motivational factors, such as the desire to study in Japan or the challenges faced in learning Japanese. These codes were systematically applied across the dataset to ensure accuracy and depth in capturing the nuances of the data. However, the coding process was not static; it evolved as the researcher gained a deeper understanding of the data, requiring modifications and refinements to better reflect emerging insights (Braun & Clarke, 2021; Howitt, 2011). Initial codes were revised, merged, or subdivided where necessary to achieve a closer alignment with the data’s meaning and context. Table 3 provides concrete examples of the coding process, illustrating how raw data was transformed into codes and then organized into themes. The researcher then reviewed the themes, revisiting the coded data to ensure alignment with the research questions and the overall dataset. Redundant themes 37 were refined or merged, while others were split into sub-themes to account for nuances and differences within the data. Table 3 Code Samples Interview extras Codes Subthemes Themes I chose Japanese over Chinese and Korean because I liked it most. In 8th grade, I decided to take world history and English for the UNT, which suited fields like international relations and East Asian studies. East Asian studies seemed unique, so I chose it. Preference for Japanese over Chinese/Korean Ideal L2 Self: Attraction to the Japanese language’s aesthetics. Motivations for Learning Japanese I did karate, and that influenced me. My interest was also due to manga, but not only. I knew Japanese better than Chinese or Korean. Plus, Japanese sounds more melodic. Chinese is too complicated for me, and Korean sounds rough. That’s why I chose Japanese. Interest sparked by karate and manga Cultural Interests Motivations for Learning Japanese I lived in Aktau, and there were no Japanese courses there at all - only Chinese and Korean. So I decided to study on my own Lack of local resources; reliance on self- study Metacognitiv e Strategies: Independent planning and execution of study Strategies for Learning Japanese Honestly, I feel stuck. In East Asian Studies, you don’t just focus on Japanese. We only had three hours of Japanese a week: one lecture and two seminars. It’s very little compared to other programs where language classes happen almost daily Limited classroom hours for Japanese University Program Gaps Challenges in Learning Japanese Note. Compiled by the author from the obtained data. Once the themes were refined, they were clearly defined and labeled, ensuring each theme’s relevance to the study’s theoretical framework. Finally, the themes were integrated into a coherent narrative, illustrated with direct quotes from participants to 38 provide a rich understanding of how students navigated the interplay between motivation and strategy in their language learning journeys. Thematic analysis proved invaluable for this study due to its ability to uncover both explicit and implicit patterns in the data. By emphasizing the participants’ voices, TA enabled a comprehensive exploration of the dynamic interplay between motivation and LLSs, contributing unique insights into the field of language learning in Kazakhstan. Figure 1 Thematic Map Based on the Participants’ Data Note. Compiled by the author from the obtained data. Motivations to Study Japanese Motivations from Entertainment, Culture, and History Educational and Professional Motivations Motivations Shaped by Social Factors Participants Challenges in Studing Japanese Challenges Related to the University Program Challenges Related to Linguistic Features of Japanese Challenges Related to Demotivation Language Learning Strategies for Studying Japanese Memory Strategies Cognitive Strategies Metacognitive Strategies The Role of AI in Language Learning 39 3.6 Ethical Considerations This study adhered to strict ethical standards to ensure the protection of participants’ rights and confidentiality throughout the research process. Ethical approval was obtained from the GSE Ethics Committee prior to any data collection activities. The approval process included a comprehensive proposal outlining the study’s purpose, methods, and ethical safeguards. To maintain anonymity, pseudonyms were assigned to all participants, and identifying information, such as names or specific institutional affiliations, was omitted from transcripts and reports (Roberts et al., 2006). Ensuring the anonymity and confidentiality of participants is a fundamental aspect of ethical research. As Creswell (2011) highlights, safeguarding private information is crucial to prevent unauthorized disclosure and maintain the trust of participants. Participants were informed that their data would be securely stored on a password-protected cloud, accessible only to the researcher and their advisor, for a period of two years. After this time, all data, including audio recordings, transcripts, and narrative responses, will be permanently deleted. Informed consent was a key component of this study. Participants were provided with a detailed consent form during their first meeting, which outlined the purpose of the study, the data collection methods, confidentiality measures, and their right to withdraw from the study at any time. The complete set of documents related to the ethics letter is provided in Appendix E. The researcher ensured that participants understood the contents of the form by explaining its key points orally and addressing any questions. During the interviews, participants were reminded of their rights, including the right to skip any questions or terminate their participation without penalty. To further protect their well- being, the researcher was sensitive to any emotional or psychological discomfort that 40 might arise from discussing challenges in language learning. In such cases, participants were offered the option to pause or discontinue the interview. The researcher also took additional steps to minimize power dynamics. By maintaining a conversa